Nabil M. A. Swelim (Arabic: نبيل ﺳﻮﻳﻠﻢ) 1930 – September 23, 2015 was an Egyptian Egyptologist who specialized in the study of pyramids. Nabil Swelim first embarked on a career as an officer in the Egyptian Navy. He graduated with a bachelor's degree from the Egyptian Naval College. He discovered the dry moat surrounding the Pyramid of Djoser and the Pyramid of Sinki. He was part of a team of archaeologists who visited Bosnia to investigate the Bosnian pyramid claims. He is the father of the art historian Tarek Swelim.

Nabil Swelim collaborated with the Bradshaw Foundation on this new section on the Pyramids of Egypt, by invitation of the Bradshaw Foundation's Chairman, Damon de Laszlo.

This is a very short note on a vast subject of pyramids during all times of human history. The libraries have at least half a million volumes on the subject. Pyramids have always existed and are still being built all over the world.

To the layman, pseudo-scientific, supernatural and romantic entertainment on pyramids is unfortunately appealing. Science fiction and Egyptomania leads readers to get caught in fantasies which go beyond reason.

One has to consider that pyramid studies are not limited to Egyptian pyramids. In all cases they have shown that they were built by people like us who are capable of creating wonders, but of making mistakes also. Indeed our Egyptian pyramids are famous within a global study. Generally, pyramid studies are being conducted in the field and the academia. In the field architectural and archeological work is the objective branch, and in academia pyramid research is the subjective branch.

For the last 40 years I have discovered, excavated and published research material on pyramids. By doing that I was involved in both branches; some of the articles I have written are the source of information and the ideas in this section of the Bradshaw Foundation website.

In Egypt, pyramid studies have been conducted since antiquity. The remarkable works of Perring, Lepsius, Petrie, Borchardt, Fakhry and Lauer in the last 2 centuries and the present work of a very very few, has added to our present knowledge. Yet we have not acquired enough information to answer all our questions. Consequently, our knowledge about pyramids remains relatively short. Meanwhile, pyramids are in a state of deterioration.

The section on Pyramid Studies is divided into two sections. The Academic or Subjective Branch of Pyramid Studies (which itself is divided into terms, concepts and properties), and The Field or Objective Branch of Pyramid Studies found further down the page.

In various locations around the world - Central American, Egypt, and China - pyramids acquire the terms of their principal identity. A pioneering step was taken by Maxim Yakovenko, in his linguistic report on the meaning of the term “pyramid” at a few locations. He shows that there are more meanings for the term 'pyramid' in those languages than we have in the Greek and Latin origin. www.world-pyramids.com

The latter agree however on the geometrical meaning as a structure with a base which is a polygon and triangular sides meeting at the vertex. In ancient Egypt pyramids and obelisks stem from a common root, a mythological hill of the sun cult at Heliopolis named 'bnbn' and the words for these monuments are 'mr' and 'txn'. They appear in the hieroglyphs as 2 dimensional drawings of the monuments.

Thus it is taken for granted that in Ancient Egypt this structure is a square base and 4 equal triangular sides meeting at an apex, this famous shape restrained the Greek and Latin meaning, we call it a true pyramid. But the word pyramid is also used to describe another category of shapes where the sides of the structure are stepped, bent or benben shaped. Other words added will indicate the material used in their construction: stone, brick or natural pyramid hill within and so on, Example1, Example2, Example3 and Example4. With more words added we can also tell what function the pyramid served: funerary, ritual, and religious or for any special purpose.

The Ancient Egyptians gave each pyramid a romantic name, Horizon of Khufu; Khafra is Great, Devine is Menkura, Beautiful are the places of Unas etc. These names refer to the king’s pyramid in the surrounding tombs of his courtiers and in other parts of the country, a subject studied in Ancient Egyptian philology. We have modern names and numbering systems for such monuments, which we prefer in our pyramid studies.

Globally each pyramid has a superstructure and a substructure. In our modern literature, terms are given to all components of superstructure from foundations to the top and to all components of the substructure from entrance to the innermost. On the local scale pyramid terms suffer from disharmony in this nomenclature, nevertheless these items have constituted long lists of terms which become fields in a data base.

Pyramids are conceived from monumental projects, historical survivals and religious rituals and beliefs.

Concerning the monumental concepts, pyramid construction is dealt with at the end of this note. Yet no ancient records have been found on: the planning, logistics, building techniques and the general administration of the building project of the pyramid.

Concerning historical concepts, quarry marks on building material at the site and at the quarries have helped calculate some questions on the progress of certain parts of building. They tell something about the administration of stone supplies. Contemporary records and buildings close to the pyramid complex have shed some light on this concept. And accounts on the periods of: construction, maintenance of the cult, neglect and discovery of the monument. Pollen caught in the mortar tells us some things about the flora at the time of building.

Concerning religious concepts, much has been learnt on the origins and functions. We have to understand more on this concept from within the religious pyramid texts found in the substructures of the pyramids of the 5th and 6th dynasties.

Moreover every funerary pyramid was expected to fulfill a number of religious demands, namely:

• The cult of the upper world.
• The cult of the netherworld.
• Some astral cults.
• The cult of the dead king.

The demands mentioned were the motives behind building:

• The superstructure.
• The substructure.
• Partly the corridors.
• All the other complex components served the cult of the dead king.

These demands are not rigid and not necessarily found 100% in every pyramid.

Pyramids have common and local properties. In Egypt the local properties are:

• A building with aesthetic geometry.
• A stable height adhering to the angle of repose.
• Maintenance of ancestral traditions.
• A fulfilment of religious concepts.

In Egypt the main pyramids are the funerary ones. There are more than 120 royal pyramids and 20 pyramid-like monuments. Each of them was built during one reign, from the third to the 13th dynasty.

Lingering traditions from the royal tomb complexes of the 1st and 2nd dynasties, for example the step pyramid is surrounded by a rectangular enclosing Temenos wall. This in turn is enclosed by a dry moat.

The step pyramid complex of Horus Netjerykhet click here for diagram. The orientation is 4 degrees. The temenos wall, entrance colonnade, step pyramid, southern tomb etc are surrounded by a great 40 m wide trench, which I named the Dry Moat; at some places at the inner south channel the depth reaches 27 m. Within the Dry Moat at the top right is the pyramid of King Userkaf, the first king of the 5th dynasty, and at the lower part is the pyramid of King Unas the last king of the same dynasty, 2500 BC. They are oriented north. There is a Late Period shaft # 21 by Lepsius. Drawn by Nabil Swelim 2005.

A valley temple, causeway, funerary temple, subsidiary pyramid, temenos wall and several boats pits. In the plan we have one of the most complete pyramid complexes.

The pyramid Complex of King Khafra, at Giza, click here for diagram - he is the 4th king of the 4th dynasty, 2600 BC, numbered G2. The base length is 215 m and the height is 144 m. The contour lines of the map show the various heights above sea level. The dark patch around the apex is what remains of the outer facing. The shaded part around the pyramid is an unfinished court delimited by a remarkable temenos wall. Four boat pits surround the funerary temple. The causeway goes in an easterly straight declining direction to the valley temple. This temple is in line with another temple of the Sphinx and immediately south of it. The cultivation lies to the east of the temples where the height is 18 meters above sea level. Drawn by Nabil Swelim 1997.

The Great Pyramid of Khufu is the largest Egyptian pyramid. It served as the tomb of pharaoh Khufu ("Cheops"), who ruled during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Built c. 2600 BC[3] over a period of about 26 years, the pyramid is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only wonder that has remained largely intact. It is the most famous monument of the Giza pyramid complex, which is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Memphis and its Necropolis".

It has a base length of 230 m and a height of 148 m. There is a stepped accretion layer pyramid imbedded within. We are looking along the N-E diagonal, thus we see the corner angle, (right) looks along the east-west axis, where we see the side angle. Note how the side angle is steeper than the corner angle. Nabil Swelim 2005.

The superstructure of a pyramid is a free standing construction built of stone or of bricks. It has a volume equal to the area of the Base, times one third of its Height; i.e., (B2 X H/3) The superstructure is composed of a core, nucleus and an outer facing:

The core contains a tumulus imbedded in a retaining mastaba (see above). These are the innermost parts of the pyramid in the Old Kingdom. Alternatively they could contain a solid construction or a natural feature as seen at natural rock knoll within the brick pyramid of Abu Rawash.

In the Old Kingdom the nucleus is composed of an accretion layered step pyramid and packing masonry over its steps. This is the principal construction in the building project, but it could be built in a few different ways in the Middle Kingdom: embankments with a fill, solid masonry, cross walls etc. This is the penultimate project in the construction of a pyramid.

The exposed nucleus of the pyramid of King Pepi II at south Saqqara; he is the 6th king of the 6th dynasty 2400 BC. The accretion layers of the stepped pyramid within are built with small blocks of limestone unlike those at Giza. To the left are the ruins of the small subsidiary pyramid, they show nice details of the outer facing.

In the Old and Middle Kingdoms the outer facing completely covers the nucleus of the pyramid and is composed of the first course which determines the orientation, the casing, and a pyramidion. These items are constructed of the finest stone material available. They are dressed and polished to a high degree. They cover the nucleus to complete the ultimate pyramid shape after the pyramidion is fixed.

Remains of the outer facing at the Red Pyramid of Snofru at Dahshur, the discolouration was caused by several episodes of being buried and being exposed over the ages. The base of the pyramid is 220.8 m and height is 100 m.

The Red Pyramid, also called the North Pyramid, is the largest of the pyramids located at the Dahshur necropolis in Cairo, Egypt. It is the third largest Egyptian pyramid, after those of Khufu and Khafre at Giza. It is believed to be Egypt's first successful attempt at constructing a "true" smooth-sided pyramid.

The pyramid is named for the rusty reddish hue of its limestone, but it was not originally red – it was clad in white Tura limestone. During the Middle Ages, much of the cladding was taken for buildings in Cairo, exposing the red limestone. Only a few white blocks remain, at the pyramid's base.

The layout of the substructure was developing because of improvements in construction capabilities. Its vulnerability to the tomb robbers, however, played a more demanding role for security. The substructure as depicted here at the pyramid of Zawyet El Aryan, is an early example during the 3rd dynasty which was entirely tunneled in the rock foundation. It begins with a stairway E, near the NE corner of the step pyramid, followed by a horizontal westerly corridor which meets an upright shaft at P, on the NS axis. These are connected to a horizontally perpendicular one coming from the fishbone-like galleries in the north to the burial chamber C, under the center of the step pyramid.

Later on in the Old Kingdom the substructure locations are shown in the diagram above. The substructure locations partly run through the building of the superstructure (the Entrance and Corridor pointing to the circumpolar region of the sky), and partly tunneled in the rock foundation (Portcullis, Sarcophagus and Burial Chamber). Being a slandered layout the tomb robbers were able to access the treasures. Consequently no pyramid with this layout has preserved its treasures.

To make it difficult for the robbers to access to the burial chamber in the Middle Kingdom the layout of the substructure becomes complicated, as shown below at the pyramid of king Ameny Qemau, 13th dynasty BC 1800. This complex arrangement was built of huge blocks of masonry in a pit open to the sky. The superstructure was constructed above the roofing which no longer exists.

In this figure of the substructure of the middle kingdom pyramid of King Ameny Qemau of the mid 13th dynasty 1700 BC at south Saqqara. The substructure is at locations K, J, E, and A, the burial chamber, sarcophagus, portcullis, polar corridor and entrance respectively. Generally, but not in a detailed manner, these features belong to all pyramids of the Old and Middle Kingdoms. They may loosely apply to other pyramids outside Egypt.

We look at the pyramids of Egypt excluding the unfinished ones and see civil engineering projects that had been successfully completed. The construction starts with preparations, namely: choosing the site, planning the project, providing for the supplies, their safe transportation and the methods of lifting the building blocks.

Constructing a pyramid is a major civil engineering project. Pyramids are built on rock formations, conglomerate, gravel, or sand surfaces which are artificially leveled or unleveled. While it will be relatively easy to level the sand surface, it would be more difficult to level gravel and very difficult to level conglomerate and rock surfaces.

The pyramid of Khufu ‘G1, is built on leveled rock, while his 'queens pyramids' especially ‘G1c, and the layer step pyramids at el Kula and Elephantine were built on an unleveled rock surface. The Pyramids of Khafra ‘G2, and Menkura ‘G3, are built on a leveled rock surface which had been extended by artificial terraces of megalithic blocks. The layer step pyramid of Snofru at Seila was built on an unleveled surface of Pliocene conglomerate. His pyramids at Dahshur are built on leveled gravel. At Meidum, the layer step pyramids of Sinki at Abydos, Nubt and El Ghanimiya, and the monuments were built on sand.

When the monument is built on a rock or conglomerate unleveled surface the pyramid shape has to consider according to a datum line. Consequently there is a construction prior to reaching the datum line.

Setting the orientation lines of the pyramid base or the datum level, would be by setting right angles to true directions. The north south direction is by observing the North Star and or by observing the rising and setting of a certain star on an artificial horizon. The east-west direction was by observing the equinox and/or by shadows of the sun light.

At Giza with Khufu and Khafra we have marks of a series of approximations leading to the perfect orientation of the pyramid base. At the layer step pyramid of Sinki planning was by means of brick markers discovered. They were placed to serve as reference points to orientation, alignments, inclination, and other building features. Brick alignment markers are also noted on the east side of the Layer pyramid at Zawyet El Aryan.

The building material is usually brought from sources close to the site. All pyramids are built of stone from the nearest quarries, thus: granite at layer step pyramid of Elephantine, sand stone at layer step pyramid of El Ghenimiya and limestone for all the other pyramids. When fine stone is needed: for the lowest course of the outer facing, the outer facing itself and the pyramidion in the superstructure and for the sarcophagus, portcullis and some inner chambers in the substructure. Their quarries and sources are deep in the desert or far upstream. In all cases transportation is needed. Preparing pyramidions and sarcophagi required higher skills.

Quarrying is a skill which has existed during all phases of human civilizations. In Egypt the quarries are numerous and their output had to be transported - we are talking about solid blocks weighing from less than one ton to hundreds of tons. In Ancient Egypt the preferred quarries of limestone were in Middle Egypt, sand stone in Upper Egypt and granite from Aswan. Most preferable were those closest to the banks of the river. As for diorite, quartzite, shiest, breccia and rare stones, they were quarried from far locations. These also had to be brought to the river for transportation. Mining copper and other metals for tools came from remote locations in Sinai.

The quarried blocks and mined metal had to be brought to the river, loaded on barges which sailed downstream. On arrival to the river banks closest to the destination, unloading takes place.

The safety of the Nile cruise varied during the 3 seasons; in the flood season there was the danger of drifting and in the harvesting season there was the danger of grounding. Yet there was a sudden danger of flash floods rushing down from the eastern desert.

We have observed that for the safety of sailing and unloading the stone supplies at Dahshur and Giza, the Ancient Egyptians of the 4th dynasty, built a great dam across Wadi Garawi (pictured below), in the east desert to ensure the safety of the transported loads from the flash flood.

The unloading takes place on the flood plain level and the building site could be close or far (may be a few kilometers). The chosen site of the pyramid project is usually on the desert plateau which was 30 to 60 meters higher than the flood plain.

These are important problems that have to be solved before the first block is set in the project.

Once the blocks are at the building site, they are built in their final position in the edifice. As the pyramid grows the blocks are lifted higher and higher.

We have remains of a ramp discovered south of the queens of Khufu at Giza (pictured right). Four ramps at the small unfinished layer step pyramid Sinki at Abydos. Herodotus reports mechanical lifting by short blocks of wood.

Every now and then a new idea turns up, unfortunately hitherto nothing is conclusive.

All these activities were achieved with the intensity required to complete the project during the lifetime of the king.

An aerial view of layer step pyramid Sinki (click to see diagram) at Abydos shows the construction ramps on the 4 sides of the unfinished monument. They were starting from the desert surface over the foundation of the outer facing (layer 3) and leaning on the nucleus (layers 2, 1, and the core). Redrawn by Nabil Swelim 1990.

The actual building of a pyramid places special emphasis on the accuracy of setting the first course of the outer facing, constructing the core and nucleus, and covering it with the outer facing and placing the pyramidion on top.

We have to take into consideration: quarrying, transporting, shaping, lifting and placing each block into its final position with enough man power and enough supplies of mortar and tools etc.

All these activities were under tight supervision to preserve the correctness of shape, stability, orientation, traditional requirements, and religious demands.

The first course of the outer facing was very carefully monitored because it is the actual orientation of the monument. There are several examples showing how this course was considered.

At Khufu, Unas, Pepi I and many other sites, large limestone blocks display the admirable methods of building the first course on a variety of foundations and platforms.

Djedefra, Khafra and Menkura built this course in granite (pictured right).

Many studies and TV documentaries have proposed methods for moving big blocks of stone up ramps and by mechanical means. Some of the suggestions are remarkable. Important as these methods are, they become useless if they do not satisfy the intensity needed to complete the building within the kings’ reign.

• The great pyramid of Khufu was built of 2.6 million blocks of limestone each of an average volume of One Cubic Meter, weighing 2.5 metric tons. This figure comes from the volume of the pyramid being 2,600,000 cubic meters. By the equation (230 x 230 x 148/3) The Area Of The Base Times One Third Of The Height.
• The Turin king list tells us that Khufu reigned for 23 years.
• Assuming that the pyramid was built every day of the 23 years of his reign, and then we have 8395 days of building.
• Working hours should be 10 hours a day, and then we have 83,950 hours or 5,037,000 minutes.
• To install 2,600,000 blocks in 5,037,000 minutes at a regular rate means: that every block has to be set in less than two minutes. (1.94 min)

The building never followed that rate: it had to be much, much faster at the beginning and slower towards the end.

At the very end of the building project comes the difficult task of placing the pyramidion at the apex of a pyramid. This is like putting the crown on the king’s head. An amazing task, the example I present is that of the pyramid of King Khafra which I considered a few years ago. This pyramidion was prefabricated in 2 parts of diorite weighing 4 and 7.15 = total 11.15 tons. They were placed on the uppermost course of the outer facing, which created a platform. The pyramidion had to fit precisely on the platform. This is at the top of a pyramid, at a height of 144 meters, with very limited space to maneuver.

When such a task was completed, taking the pyramid of Khafra as an example, we would be looking at a very beautiful monument: Well oriented, well stabilized, the first course of rose granite, a whitish gold outer facing and a dark green diorite pyramidion on top.

Egyptological degrees: Ph.D., 1981, with summa cum laude, The Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest, Hungary; Academic Candidate of Sciences (= Habilitation) 1990, The Hungarian Academy of Science, Budapest, Hungary; currently a D.Sc. candidate.

Academic Background: B.Sc., 1952 The Naval Academy Alexandria Egypt; M.Sc., 1963 The Naval Institute, Izmail, USSR; M.A., 1973 The Commanding and Staff Officers College, Cairo Egypt.

Occupation: Author, lecturer, excavator and photographer specializing in pyramid research, art, architecture and religion of Ancient Egypt. Retired Commodore; (= Rear Admiral).

Archaeological Discoveries: The Pyramid called Sinki at Abydos. The Dry Moat surrounding the Step Pyramid Complex at Saqqara. The identity of the Pyramid of Seila. The Brick Pyramid at Abu Rawash, the north Pyramid of Mazghuna = Lepsius 59, and others.

Listed on a monument at the Saqqara Museum among the main archaeologists from 1850 to 2006. Currently invited to observe the work of the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation.

Monographs:

• Some Problems on the History of the Third Dynasty, Alexandria 1983.
• The Brick Pyramid at Abu Rawash, Number '1' by Lepsius, Alexandria 1987.
• Alexandrian Studies in Memoriam Daoud Abdu Daoud, BSAA 45(1993) Editor.
• The Pyramid Hills: Visocica and Pljesevica Hrasce, Observations, and Analyses. Sarajevo 2007.
• 7 Layer Monuments of the Early Old Kingdom Forthcoming
• Pyramids of the Third to the Thirteenth Dynasty, Analyses, Catalogues and Developments; 4 Volumes in Preparation

Contribution to Festschrifts of: I.E.S. Edwards, W. Kaiser, J. Leclant, L. Kakosy, J-Ph. Lauer, D. Arnold, E. Gaal – U. Luft – L. Torok , Mafred Bietak, Ali Rawan and Gunter Dreyer.

Contribution to Memorials of: D. A. Daoud, and Abd El Aziz Sadek (Azzouz).

Encyclopedia Entries: Macmillan's Dictionary of Art (2)

Archaeological and Historical Studies, 4, 5 and 7; MDAIK, 38, 47 and 53; JSSEA, 14, Occasional Publications, 7 (EES); Studia Aegyptiaca, XIV, XVII; IFAO Bd’E 106-1; BSAA 45; Bibliotheca Alexandrina, The Alexandria Project, www.icbp.ba and others.

President of the ICBP Sarajevo 2008; Winkelmann’s corresponding member of the German Institutes of Archaeology: Elected 9 December 1999. The International Association of Egyptologists; the International Association of Coptology; EES; ARCE; SSEA; ASA. Member of the DIA expedition to Abydos 1981; Hungarian expedition to TT32 1985, BYU expedition at El Fayum 1987 and 1988, Freie Universitat Berlin expedition to Saqqara 1993; The University of Warsaw expedition to Saqqara 1996 and others.

May 2008

The sources of the presnt information. This document is based on the contents of the following publications by the author:

• Die Kleine stufenpyramide von Abydos-Sud (Sinki) Grabungsberict. MDAIK 38, Mainz, 1982. With Dreyer Gunter.
• Additional Views Concerning the Monument called Sinki. MDAIK 38, Mainz, 1982.
• Some Problems on the History of the Third Dynasty, Alexandria, 1983.
• A Reason for the Corbelled Roof in Dynasty III and IV Pyramid, JSSEA XIV, 6, Toronto, 1984.
• The Brick Pyramid at Abu Rawash Number 'I' by Lepsius a Preliminary Study, Alexandria, 1987.
• The Dry Moat, of the Netjerykhet Complex, Pyramid Studies and Other Essays Presented to I.E.S. Edwards, 12, London, 1988.
• Pyramid Research from the Archaic to the Second Intermediate Period, Lists, Catalogues and Objectives, Hommages à Jean Leclant, Vol. 1 Etudes Pharaonique Bibliotheque D’Ettude 106/1, Cairo, 1994.
• The Pyramidion of Khafra, Iubilate Conlegae Studies in Memory of Abdel Aziz Sadek, Varia Aegyptiaca, Vol 11, San Antonio, 1998.
• On the Pyramid of Ameny-Qemau and its Canopic Equipment, MDAIK 53, 1997; with Aidan Dodson.
• The Pyramid Court and Temenos Wall of Khafra Études sur l’Ancient Empire et la nécropole de Saqqâra dédiées à Jea-Phillippe Lauer, Montpellier III, 1997.
• The Dry Moat, the South Rock Wall of the Inner South Channel, Timelines, Studies in Honour of Mafred Bietak Vol 1, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 149, 2006.
• G1 a, b, c and d Ashlars, Structure and Significance, thoughts on Ancient Egyptian Architecture, Wien, 2005. Fs Dieter Arnold.
• An Aerial View of the Layer Monument of Snfrw at Seila, Fs. Gunter Dreyer. Submitted, 2007.
• The Pyramid Hills: Visocica and Pljesevica Hrasce, Observations, and Analyses, 30 August to 12 September, Sarajevo, 2007. www.icbp.ba
• The Layer Monument of Snfrw at Seila, a reconstruction, abstract, ANSE, Napoli, 2008.
• Reconstructions Of The Layer Monument Of Snfrw At Seila, Fs. Gaballa Aly Gaballa. Submitted 2008.

With thanks to the Bradshaw Foundation for suggesting this new section on pyramids on their website. My article was by kind invitation of the Bradshaw Foundation's Chairman, Damon de Laszlo.

Our story began in November 1997, when I was introduced to Mr. Robert Hefner III, the President of the Bradshaw Foundation, by the late Dr. Malcolm McKenna of the American Museum of Natural History in New York. We made our wonderful trip throughout the Memphite and the Theban sites with the late Mr. John Robinson and his wife Margie.

In 1999 John Robinson and Margie Robinson returned to Egypt with Sandra, Damon and their eldest son Robert de Laszlo; we had an equally sustaining trip. At Saqqara we saw the newly excavated tomb of the 5th Dynasty Vizier Fefi. At Luxor the temples and tombs brought us closer to the complicated subject of the Egyptian pantheon.

This article is a brief expression of my understanding of the pyramids of Egypt. Forty years have passed since I became interested in Ancient Egypt. The information I am presenting comes from the articles mentioned in the bibliography.

I would like to express my appreciation for the expertise and patience of Peter Robinson, Editor, and Ben Dickins, Creative Director. It is due to them that they professionally produced the article in this manner. I would also like to thank Salwa my wife for her encouragement.

Professor Nabil Swelim
July 2008

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